生物化学

Fluorescent protein biosensors (FPBs) that turn on—go from dark to bright upon binding their ligands—enable the detection of targets in living cells with high sensitivity and spatial localization. Several approaches exist for creating turn-on FPBs, most notably the method that gave rise to the GCaMP family of genetically encoded calcium indicators. However, it remains challenging to modify these sensors to recognize new ligands. We recently developed adaptable turn-on maturation (ATOM) biosensors, in which target recognition by a small binding domain triggers chromophore maturation in the fluorescent protein to which it is attached. ATOM sensors are advantageous because they are generalizable (by virtue of the monobody and nanobody binding domains) and modular (binding domains and fluorescent proteins of various colors can be mixed and matched for multiplexed imaging), capable of detecting endogenously expressed proteins, and able to function in subcellular compartments including the cytoplasm, nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, and mitochondria. The protocols herein detail how to design, clone, and screen new ATOM sensors for detecting targets of choice. The starting materials are the genes encoding for a monobody or nanobody and for a cyan, yellow, or red fluorescent protein. We also present general guidelines for creating ATOM sensors using binding domains other than nanobodies and monobodies.

Free radicals, including reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS), induce oxidative stress. This stress plays crucial roles in cellular signaling, stress response, and disease progression, making the quantification of free radicals essential for understanding oxidative stress mechanisms. Here, we present a high-throughput fluorescence-based protocol for measuring the presence of total free radicals, including ROS and RNS, in the whole adult Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly). The protocol involves homogenizing whole adult flies in PBS and treating only the supernatant of the lysate with dichlorodihydrofluorescein-DiOxyQ (DCFH-DiOxyQ), which then converts into a fluorescent molecule, dichlorofluorescein (DCF), upon reacting with free radicals. The level of fluorescence is directly proportional to the amount of free radicals present in the sample. This protocol offers simplicity, scalability, and adaptability, making it ideal for studying oxidative stress in the model organism Drosophila and its different tissues under different dietary regimes, environmental stresses, genetic mutations, or pharmacological treatments. It is to be noted that the protocol uses a kit from Abcam, which has been used to measure free radicals in mice, rats, human blood, and cell lines. It can also be applied to biofluids, culture supernatants, and cell lysates, making it suitable for a wide range of sample types beyond whole organisms or tissues. However, due to our research focus and expertise, here we describe a detailed protocol to measure free radicals responsible for inducing oxidative stress only in fruit flies.

Molybdenum (Mo) and tungsten (W) are elements that are utilized in biological systems. They are typically incorporated into the catalytic sites of enzymes coordinated to an organic pyranopterin cofactor; Mo may also be present in the form of a FeMo cofactor. While Mo is used by all branches of life, only a few microbes are able to utilize W. In order to study Mo- and W-dependent enzymes, it is important to be able to measure Mo and W in biological samples. Methods for determining Mo and W content in biological samples currently involve expensive and time-consuming processes like inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and chelation ion chromatography. There are less intensive colorimetric methods for measuring W in abiotic samples, but these have not been adapted to biological samples like cytosolic extracts and purified proteins. Herein, we developed a colorimetric assay based on the complexation of quercetin to molybdate (MoO₄^2-) or tungstate (WO₄^2-), the oxyanion forms of Mo and W that readily form in denatured biological samples. In the assay, the absorbance of quercetin is redshifted proportionally to the concentration of tungsten or molybdenum, which can be measured spectrophotometrically. This protocol provides a rapid method for screening biological samples for both Mo and W, although it does not distinguish between them.

Many small molecules require derivatization to increase their volatility and to be amenable to gas chromatographic (GC) separation. Derivatization is usually time-consuming, and typical batch-wise procedures increase sample variability. Sequential automation of derivatization via robotic liquid handling enables the overlapping of sample preparation and analysis, maximizing time efficiency and minimizing variability. Herein, a protocol for the fully automated, two-stage derivatization of human blood–based samples in line with GC–[Orbitrap] mass spectrometry (MS)-based metabolomics is described. The protocol delivers a sample-to-sample runtime of 31 min, being suitable for better throughput routine metabolomic analysis.

Plant proteases participate in a wide variety of biological processes, including development, growth, and defense. To date, numerous proteases have been functionally identified through genetic studies. However, redundancy among certain proteases can obscure their roles, as single-gene loss-of-function mutants often exhibit no discernible phenotype, limiting identification through genetic approaches. Here, we describe an efficient system for the identification of target proteases that cleave specific substrates in the Arabidopsis apoplastic fluid. The method involves using Arabidopsis-submerged culture medium, which contains apoplastic proteases, followed by native two-dimensional electrophoresis. Gel fractionation and an in-gel peptide cleavage assay with a fluorescence-quenching peptide substrate are then used to detect specific proteolytic activity. The active fraction is then subjected to mass spectrometry–based proteomics to identify the protease of interest. This method allows for the efficient and comprehensive identification of proteases with specific substrate cleavage activities in the apoplast.

Protein O-GlcNAcylation is a prevalent and dynamic post-translational modification that targets a multitude of nuclear and cytoplasmic proteins. Through the modification of diverse substrates, O-GlcNAcylation plays a pivotal role in essential cellular processes, including transcription, translation, and protein homeostasis. Dysregulation of O-GlcNAc homeostasis has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and neurodegenerative diseases. Studying O-GlcNAcylated proteins in different tissues is crucial to understanding the pathogenesis of these diseases. However, identifying phenotype-relevant candidate substrates in a tissue-specific manner remains unfeasible. We developed a novel tool for the analysis of O-GlcNAcylated proteins, combining a catalytically inactive CpOGA mutant CpOGA^CD and TurboID proximity labeling technology. This tool converts O-GlcNAc modifications into biotin labeling, enabling the enrichment and mass spectrometry (MS) identification of O-GlcNAcylated proteins in specific tissues. Meanwhile, TurboID-CpOGA^DM, which carries two point mutations that inactivate both its catalytic and binding activities toward O-GlcNAc modification, was used as a control to differentiate O-GlcNAc-independent protein–protein interactions. We have successfully used TurboID-CpOGA^CD/DM (TurboID-CpOGA^M) to enrich O-GlcNAc proteins in Drosophila combining the UAS/Gal4 system. Our protocol provides a comprehensive workflow for tissue-specific enrichment of candidate O-GlcNAcylated substrates and offers a valuable tool for dissecting tissue-specific O-GlcNAcylation functions in Drosophila.

Voltage clamp fluorometry (VCF) is a powerful technique in which the voltage of a cell’s membrane is clamped to control voltage-sensitive membrane proteins while simultaneously measuring fluorescent signals from a protein of interest. By combining fluorescence measurements with electrophysiology, VCF provides real-time measurement of a protein’s motions, which gives insight into its function. This protocol describes the use of VCF to study a membrane protein, the voltage-sensing phosphatase (VSP). VSP is a 3 and 5 phosphatidylinositol phosphate (PIP) phosphatase coupled to a voltage sensing domain (VSD). The VSD of VSP is homologous to the VSD of ion channels, with four transmembrane helices (S1–S4). The S4 contains the gating charge arginine residues that sense the membrane’s electric field. Membrane depolarization moves the S4 into a state that activates the cytosolic phosphatase domain. To monitor the movement of S4, the environmentally sensitive fluorophore tetramethylrhodamine-6-maleimide (TMRM) is attached extracellularly to the S3-S4 loop. Using VCF, the resulting fluorescence signals from the S4 movement measure the kinetics of activation and repolarization, as well as the voltage dependence of the VSD. This protocol details the steps to express VSP in Xenopus laevis oocytes and then acquire and analyze the resulting VCF data. VCF is advantageous as it provides voltage control of VSP in a native membrane while quantitatively assessing the functional properties of the VSD.

Transfer RNAs (tRNAs), the essential adapter molecules in protein translation, undergo various post-transcriptional modifications. These modifications play critical roles in regulating tRNA folding, stability, and codon–anticodon interactions, depending on the modified position. Methods for detecting modified nucleosides in tRNAs include isotopic labeling combined with chromatography, antibody-based techniques, mass spectrometry, and high-throughput sequencing. Among these, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) has been a cornerstone technique for analyzing modified nucleosides for decades. In this protocol, we provide a detailed, streamlined approach to purify and digest tRNAs from yeast cells and analyze the resulting nucleosides using HPLC. By assessing UV absorbance spectra and retention times, modified nucleosides can be reliably quantified with high accuracy. This method offers a simple, fast, and accessible alternative for studying tRNA modifications, especially when advanced technologies are unavailable.

Cricket paralysis virus (CrPV), a member of the family Dicistroviridae, is a single-stranded positive-sense RNA virus that primarily infects arthropods. Some members of the dicistrovirus family, including the honey bee viruses Israeli acute paralysis virus and Acute bee paralysis virus and the shrimp-infecting Taura syndrome virus, pose significant threats to agricultural ecosystems and economies worldwide. Dicistrovirus infection in Drosophila is used as a model system to study fundamental insect–virus–host interactions. The availability of a CrPV infectious clone allows controlled manipulation of the viral genome at a molecular level. Effective viral propagation and titration techniques are crucial for understanding the pathogenesis and epidemiology of dicistrovirus infections. Traditional methods for assessing viral titers, such as plaque assays, are unsuitable for CrPV, since Drosophila tissue culture cells like Schneider 2 cells cannot readily form adherent plaques. Here, we present a streamlined protocol for generating a recombinant virus from a CrPV infectious clone, propagating the virus in S2 cells and titering the virus by an immunofluorescence-based focus-forming assay (FFA). This protocol offers a rapid and reliable approach for generating recombinant viruses, viral amplification, and determining CrPV titers, enabling efficient investigation into viral biology and facilitating the development of antiviral strategies.

Fatty acid (FA) biosynthesis is a crucial cellular process that converts nutrients into metabolic intermediates necessary for membrane biosynthesis, energy storage, and the production of signaling molecules. Acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACACA) plays a pivotal catalytic role in both fatty acid synthesis and oxidation. This cytosolic enzyme catalyzes the carboxylation of acetyl-CoA to malonyl-CoA, which represents the first and rate-limiting step in de novo fatty acid biosynthesis. In this study, we developed a rapid and effective purification scheme for separating human ACACA without any exogenous affinity tags, providing researchers with a novel method to obtain human ACACA in its native form.